en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Necker
6 corrections found
a value-added tax
This is the wrong kind of tax. A VAT is a modern consumption tax introduced in France in 1954, whereas the vingtième d'industrie was an 18th-century tax on income from commercial and industrial activity.
Full reasoning
The article labels the vingtième d'industrie as "a value-added tax", but those are not the same thing.
- A value-added tax (VAT) is a consumption tax collected at each stage of production/distribution on the value added. Tax Foundation defines VAT this way.
- Citéco's history of French taxation dates the introduction of VAT in France to 1954.
- A University of Lorraine legal-history bibliography entry summarizing research on the vingtième d'industrie explains that the vingtième was "un impôt sur le revenu" and that it applied to categories of income including commercial, artisanal, and industrial activities.
So the article's wording is inaccurate: the vingtième d'industrie was an income tax on industrial/commercial earnings, not a modern VAT.
3 sources
- Value Added Tax (VAT) Definition | TaxEDU Glossary
A value-added tax (VAT) is ... a consumption tax assessed on the value added in each production stage of a good or service.
- 10000 years of economy - Introduction of the VAT in France
1954 Introduction of the VAT in France
- Le vingtième d'industrie et les états de Bourgogne. Impôt et politique économique dans la seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle.
Au XVIIIe siècle, les rois de France ont instauré un impôt sur le revenu ... du vingtième. Ces impositions touchent les différentes catégories de revenus, dont celui de l'industrie.
In 1788, insurrections broke out in Brittany, and Necker was sacked again.
Necker was not dismissed in 1788. He was recalled to office in 1788 and then dismissed on 23 June 1789 before being recalled again in July 1789.
Full reasoning
This sentence gets Necker's chronology backwards.
The Palace of Versailles' biography of Jacques Necker states that he was "Recalled by Louis XVI in 1788". It then says that he was "sacked by Louis XVI" only after he declined to attend the king's address on 23 June 1789, and that he was recalled for a third time in July 1789.
So Necker was not "sacked again" in 1788. His second return to office happened in 1788, and his next dismissal happened in June 1789.
1 source
- Jacques Necker | Château de Versailles
Recalled by Louis XVI in 1788 ... He declined to attend the king's address on 23 June 1789, and was duly sacked by Louis XVI. Recalled for a third time in July 1789...
The deputies in the Convention prepared a surety for future issues of paper money (on 19 June and 29 July).
The legislative body in June and July 1790 was not the National Convention. The National Convention first sat on 20 September 1792; July 1790 assignat debates were in the National Assembly.
Full reasoning
This sentence uses the wrong assembly name for events in 1790.
The National Convention did not yet exist in June or July 1790. A Britannica/Wikisource text on the National Convention states that it "sat from the 20th of September 1792" and that "The first session was held on the 20th of September 1792."
By contrast, the cited assignat discussion of 29 July 1790 is preserved in Archives Parlementaires as proceedings of the Assemblée: "discussion du projet de décret ... sur l'émission des assignats" during the séance du 29 juillet 1790.
So referring to "the deputies in the Convention" for June/July 1790 is anachronistic; the relevant deputies were those of the National Assembly (more precisely, the National Constituent Assembly).
2 sources
- 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Convention, The National - Wikisource, the free online library
the constitutional and legislative assembly which sat from the 20th of September 1792 ... The first session was held on the 20th of September 1792.
- Ordre du jour de la séance du 29 juillet 1790 : discussion du projet de décret du comité des finances sur l'émission des assignats - Persée
Ordre du jour de la séance du 29 juillet 1790 : discussion du projet de décret du comité des finances sur l'émission des assignats
municipal bonds
This uses the wrong financial term. Municipal bonds are issued by state or local governments, while France financed the American war mainly through royal/state borrowing.
Full reasoning
The phrase "municipal bonds" is incorrect here.
A municipal bond is debt issued by state or local governments, not by a national monarchy or central state treasury. Cornell's Legal Information Institute defines municipal bonds as debt issued by "state, municipal, or county governments".
For France's financing of the American War, the historical literature describes the crown as having financed the war almost entirely by borrowing. An NBER paper on French war finance states that France used borrowing to finance the war and gives totals for war costs and borrowing by the crown.
So the article should not call these municipal bonds. The relevant instruments were state/royal loans or government borrowing, not bonds issued by municipalities.
2 sources
- municipal bonds | Wex | US Law | LII / Legal Information Institute
A municipal bond is a form of debt issued by state, municipal, or county governments to finance its operations.
- British and French Finance During the Napoleonic Wars | NBER Working Paper 3517
finance the war almost entirely by borrowing ... The estimated cost of the war from 1777 to 1782 has been calculated at 1,066 million livres and total borrowing at 997 million livres.
In 1783, Morris cut off interest payments to France, its largest foreign creditor.
The date and attribution are wrong. U.S. interest payments to France stopped in 1785, and Robert Morris had left the superintendent role in 1784.
Full reasoning
This sentence conflicts with standard U.S. diplomatic and archival histories.
- The U.S. Department of State's Office of the Historian says the Confederation government "stop[ped] payments of interest to France in 1785".
- The Library of Congress says Robert Morris was the Superintendent of Finance from 1781–1784.
So the claim that Morris cut off French interest payments in 1783 is incorrect on both the date and the officeholder. The stoppage the sources describe occurred in 1785, after Morris's tenure had ended.
2 sources
- Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations - Office of the Historian
The government struggled to pay off the loans, stopping payments of interest to France in 1785 and defaulting on further installments that were due in 1787.
- The Board of Treasury | Library of Congress
Robert Morris was the Superintendent of Finance from 1781-1784.
the title of Controller-General of Finances
Necker was recalled in 1788 as Director-General of Finances, not Controller-General. Contemporary and reference sources note that, as a Protestant foreigner, he did not hold the controller-general title.
Full reasoning
This misstates Necker's office in 1788.
George Mason University's Liberty, Equality, Fraternity timeline entry for 24 August 1788 says Necker replaced Brienne "with the title of Director General of Finances".
Brown University's reference entry likewise says Necker "did not have the title controller general, because he was a foreigner and a Protestant" and that in 1788 Louis XVI recalled him "as director-general of finances and minister of state."
So the article's statement that he had or insisted on "the title of Controller-General of Finances" is inaccurate; the title he actually held on his recall was Director-General of Finances.
2 sources
- Jacques Necker ... replaces Loménie de Brienne with the title of Director General of Finances · LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY: EXPLORING THE FRENCH REVOUTION
Date August 24, 1788 ... replaces Loménie de Brienne with the title of Director General of Finances
- Napoleonic Satires - Necker
He did not have the title controller general, because he was a foreigner and a Protestant... In 1788, Louis XVI recalled Necker as director-general of finances and minister of state.